index

Walking

Sat, 25 Jul 2009 10:04:32 +0100

Walking

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Walking (disambiguation).

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can. (February 2009)

Simple Walk-Cycle

Walking (also called ambulation) is the main form of animal locomotion on land, distinguished from running and crawling.^[1]^[2] When carried out in shallow waters, it is usually described as wading and when performed over a steeply rising object or an obstacle it becomes scrambling or climbing. The word walk is descended from the Old English wealcan "to roll".

Walking is generally distinguished from running in that only one foot at a time leaves contact with the ground; for humans and other bipeds, running begins when both feet are off the ground with each step. (This distinction has the status of a formal requirement in competitive walking events, resulting in disqualification at the Olympic level.) For horses and other quadrupedal species, the running gaits may be numerous, and while walking keep three feet at a time on the ground.

The average human child achieves independent walking ability around 11 months old.^[3]

While not strictly bipedal, several primarily bipedal human gaits (where the long bones of the arms support at most a small fraction of the body's weight) are generally regarded as variants of walking. These include:

Hand walking; an unusual form of locomotion, in which the walker moves primarily using their hands.
Walking on crutches (usually executed by alternating between standing on both legs, and rocking forward "on the crutches" (i.e., supported under the armpits by them);
Walking with one or two walking stick(s) or trekking poles (reducing the load on one or both legs, or supplementing the body's normal balancing mechanisms by also pushing against the ground through at least one arm that holds a long object);
Walking while holding on to a walker, a framework to aid with balance; and
Scrambling, using the arms (and hands or some other extension to the arms) not just as a backup to normal balance, but, as when walking on talus, to achieve states of balance that would be impossible or unstable when supported solely by the legs;

For humans, walking is the main form of transportation without a vehicle or riding animal. An average walking speed is about 5 to 6 km/h (3 to 4 mph), although this depends heavily on factors such as height, weight, age, terrain, surface, load, culture, and fitness.^[4]^[5] A pedestrian is a person who is walking on a road, sidewalk or path.

[hide]

1 Health benefits of walking
2 Paleoanthropology and ambulation
3 Biomechanics
4 Walking velocity
5 As a leisure activity
6 As transportation
7 In robotics
8 See also
9 Notes
10 External links

Health benefits of walking

Sustained walking sessions for a minimum period of thirty to sixty minutes a day, five days a week, with the correct walking posture,^[6]^[7] reduces health risks and has various overall health benefits.^[8] Such as reducing the chances of cancer, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, anxiety and depression.^[9] Life expectancy is also increased even for individuals suffering from obesity or high blood pressure. Walking also increases bone health, especially strengthening the hip bone, and lowering the more harmful bad low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and raises the more useful good high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol.^[10]^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17]

Paleoanthropology and ambulation

It is thought possible that ancestors of modern humans were walking in ways very similar to the present activity as much as 1.5 million years ago. ^[18]^[19]

Biomechanics

Human walking is accomplished with a strategy called the double pendulum. During forward motion, the leg that leaves the ground swings forward from the hip. This sweep is the first pendulum. Then the leg strikes the ground with the heel and rolls through to the toe in a motion described as an inverted pendulum. The motion of the two legs is coordinated so that one foot or the other is always in contact with the ground. The process of walking recovers approximately sixty per cent of the energy used due to pendulum dynamics and ground reaction force.^[20]^[21]

Walking differs from a running gait in a number of ways. The most obvious is that during walking one leg always stays on the ground while the other is swinging. In running there is typically a ballistic phase where the runner is airborne with both feet in the air (for bipedals).

Another difference concerns the movement of the center of mass of the body. In walking the body "vaults" over the leg on the ground, raising the center of mass to its highest point as the leg passes the vertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs are spread apart. Essentially kinetic energy of forward motion is constantly being traded for a rise in potential energy. This is reversed in running where the center of mass is at its lowest as the leg is vertical. This is because the impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in muscles and tendons. In running there is a conversion between kinetic, potential, and elastic energy.

There is an absolute limit on an individual's speed of walking (without special techniques such as those employed in speed walking) due to the upwards acceleration of the center of mass during a stride - if it's greater than the acceleration due to gravity the person will become airborne as they vault over the leg on the ground. Typically however, animals switch to a run at a lower speed than this due to energy efficiencies.

Walking velocity

Average adult walking velocity on level surfaces is approximately 80 m/min. For men, it is about 82 m/min, and for women, about 79 m/min.^[22]

As a leisure activity

Race walking

Many people walk as a hobby, and in our post-industrial age it is often enjoyed as one of the best forms of exercise.^[23]

Fitness walkers and others may use a pedometer to count their steps. The types of walking include bushwalking, racewalking, weight-walking, hillwalking, volksmarching, Nordic walking and hiking on long-distance paths. Sometimes people prefer to walk indoors using a treadmill. In some countries walking as a hobby is known as hiking (the typical North American term), rambling (a somewhat dated British expression, but remaining in use because it is enshrined in the title of the important Ramblers' Association), or tramping. Hiking is a subtype of walking, generally used to mean walking in nature areas on specially designated routes or trails, as opposed to in urban environments; however, hiking can also refer to any long-distance walk. More obscure terms for walking include "to go by Marrow-bone stage", "to take one's daily constitutional", "to ride Shank's pony", "to ride Shank's mare", or "to go by Walker's bus". Among search and rescue responders, those responders who walk (rather than ride, drive, fly, climb, or sit in a communications trailer) often are known as "ground pounders".^[24]^[25]

The Walking the Way to Health Initiative is the largest volunteer led walking scheme in the United Kingdom. Volunteers are trained to lead free Health Walks from community venues such as libraries and GP surgeries. The scheme has trained over 35,000 volunteers and have over 500 schemes operating across the UK, with thousands of people walking every week.

Professionals working to increase the number of people walking more usually come from 6 sectors: health, transport, environment, schools, sport & recreation and urban design. A new organization called Walk England launched a web site on the 18th June 2008 to provide these professionals with evidence, advice and examples of success stories of how to encourage communities to walk more. The site has a social networking aspect to allow professionals and the public to ask questions, discuss, post news and events and communicate with others in their area about walking, as well as a "walk now" option to find out what walks are available in each region.

The world's largest registration walking event is the International Four Days Marches Nijmegen. The annual Labor Day walk on Mackinac Bridge draws over sixty thousand participants. The Chesapeake Bay Bridge walk annually draws over fifty thousand participants. Walks are often organized as charity events with walkers seeking sponsors to raise money for a specific cause. Charity walks range in length from two mile (3 km) or five km walks to as far as fifty miles (eighty km). The MS Challenge Walk is an example of a fifty mile walk which raises money to fight multiple sclerosis. The Oxfam Trailwalker is a one hundred km event.

Sheep walking along a road

In Britain, the Ramblers' Association is the biggest organization that looks after the interests of walkers. A registered charity, it has 139,000 members. Regular, brisk cycling or walking can improve confidence, stamina, energy, weight control, life expectancy and reduce stress. It can also reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, strokes, diabetes, high blood pressure, bowel cancer and osteoporosis. Modern scientific studies have shown that walking, besides its physical benefits, is also beneficial for the mind — improving memory skills, learning ability, concentration and abstract reasoning, besides reducing stress and uplifting ones' spirits.

As a form of tourism there are many options for walking. The most famous one would be "walking tours" normally offered in different cities by paid guide tours. However, there are some volunteers that can drive walking tours for tourists and do not charge for it, but just ask for a small tip at the end of the walk. Websites such as Bluewalks^[26] promotes walking as a form of collaborative and green tourism allowing travelers to share their walking tours.

As transportation

Walking is the most basic and common mode of transportation and is recommended for a healthy lifestyle, and has numerous environmental benefits. However, people are walking less in the UK, a Department of Transport report found that between 1995/97 and 2005 the average number of walk trips per person fell by 16%, from 292 to 245 per year. Many professionals in local authorities and the NHS are employed to halt this decline by ensuring that the built environment allows people to walk and that there are walking opportunities available to them.

"Walking is convenient, it needs no special equipment, is self-regulating and inherently safe. Walking is as natural as breathing". John Butcher, Founder Walk21, 1999

There has been a recent focus among urban planners in some communities to create pedestrian-friendly areas and roads, allowing commuting, shopping and recreation to be done on foot. Some communities are at least partially car-free, making them particularly supportive of walking and other modes of transportation. In the United States, the Active Living network is an example of a concerted effort to develop communities more friendly to walking and other physical activities.

Walking is also considered to be a clear example of a sustainable mode of transport, especially suited for urban use and/or relatively shorter distances. Non Motorised Transport modes such as walking, but also cycling, small-wheeled transport (skates, skateboards, push scooters and hand carts) or wheelchair travel are often key elements of successfully encouraging clean urban transport.^[27] A large variety of case studies and good practices (from European cities and some worldwide examples) that promote and stimulate walking as a means of transportation in cities can be found at Eltis, Europe's portal for local transport.^[28]

On roads with no sidewalks, pedestrians should always walk facing the oncoming traffic for their own and other peoples' safety.

When distances are too great to be convenient,walking can be combined with other modes of transportation, such as cycling, public transport, car sharing, carpooling, hitchhiking, ride sharing, car rentals and taxis. These methods may be more efficient or desirable than private car ownership, being a healthy means of physical exercise.

The development of specific rights of way with appropriate infrastructure can promote increased participation and enjoyment of walking. Examples of types of investment include pedestrian malls, and foreshoreways such as oceanways and riverwalks.

In robotics

Main article: Robot locomotion

The first successful attempts at walking robots tended to have 6 legs. The number of legs was reduced as microprocessor technology advanced, and there are now a number of robots that can walk on 2 legs, though not nearly as well as a human being.

Ballroom Dance

Sat, 25 Jul 2009 10:01:08 +0100

Ballroom dance

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Ballroom dancing)

Jump to: navigation, search

The Gaskell Ball

Ballroom dance refers to a set of partner dances, which are enjoyed both socially and competitively around the globe. Its performance and entertainment aspects are also widely enjoyed on stage, in film, and on television.

While historically ballroom dance may refer to any form of formal social dancing as recreation, with the emergence of dancesport in modern times the term has become much narrower in scope, usually referring specifically to the International Standard and International Latin style dances (see dance categories below). In the United States, two additional variations—"American Smooth" and "American Rhythm"—have also been popularized and are commonly recognized as styles of "ballroom dance".

Definitions and history

This section needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008)

Vernon and Irene Castle, early ballroom dance pioneers, c. 1910-1918.

The term "ballroom dancing" is derived from the word ball, which in turn originates from the Latin word ballare which means "to dance". In times past, ballroom dancing was "social dancing" for the privileged, leaving "folk dancing" for the lower classes. These boundaries have since become blurred, and it should be noted even in times long gone, many "ballroom" dances were really elevated folk dances.

The definition of ballroom dance also depends on the era. Balls have featured Minuet, Quadrille, Polonaise, Pas de Gras, Mazurka, and other popular dances of the day, which are considered to be historical dances. Today, the term applies to any one of the several dances in which two individuals, a "leader" and a "follower," dance with physical contact through their upper or lower bodies, or simply their arms depending on the particular variety of dance. Since most social dancing is unchoreographed, this contact is necessary for the leader to communicate the next dance move to the follower, and for the follower to respond to this insinuation. This stands in stark contrast with the style(s) of dance seen in clubs and other social gatherings where physical contact tends to be optional and the individuals in question can move freely without any such restraints imposed by firm physical contact or by the necessity to follow the rhythmic pattern present in the music. Some knowledge of known step patterns is essential for both the leader as well as the follower for ballroom dancing. As most ballroom style dances require some knowledge and practice, they have lessened in popularity among the public in the recent decades. Dance historians usually mark the appearance of the twist in the early 1960s as the end of social partner dancing.

Astaire and Rogers

In the early 20th century, the on-screen dance pairing of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers greatly influenced ballroom dancing in the USA. Although both actors had separate projects and careers, they are associated for their filmed dance sequences together, which included portrayals of early 20th century dancers Vernon and Irene Castle and have reached iconic status.^[1] Much of Astaire and Rogers' work portrayed social dancing, although the performances were highly choreographed (often by Astaire or Hermes Pan), and meticulously staged and rehearsed.^[2]

Competitive dancing

2005 U.S. National Professional Standard Championships, hosted by BYU

In spite of its historical image as a pastime for the privileged; formal competitions, sometimes referred to as DanceSport, often allow participation by less advanced dancers at various proficiency levels. Ballroom dance competitions take place worldwide at different levels.

The International Olympic Committee now recognizes competitive ballroom dance ^[3]. It now appears doubtful that it will be included in the Olympic Games especially in light of efforts to reduce the number of offerings, but the application has not been permanently rejected.

In the United States, amateur dance proficiency levels are defined by USA Dance (formerly United States Amateur Ballroom Dance Association, USABDA) as Bronze->Silver->Gold for syllabus dancers, and Novice->Prechampionship->Championship for open competitors.^[4] These levels roughly correspond to the "E" to "S" levels in Europe and Australia. Among professionals, levels classify into Rising Star and Open Professional.

Eligibility and "leveling up" requirements will vary greatly between countries and sometimes within. For instance, in addition to USA Dance competitions, amateur dancers in the United States often participate in competitions sanctioned by NDCA or YCN (Youth Collegiate Network), each with its own distinct culture in addition to differing definitions of level and eligibility requirements.

Ballroom dancing competitions in the former USSR also included the Soviet Ballroom dances, or Soviet Programme. Australian New Vogue is danced both competitively and socially. In competition there are 15 recognised New Vogue dances, which are performed by the competitors in sequence.

Internationally, the Blackpool Dance Festival, hosted annually at Blackpool, England, is considered the most prestigious event a dancesport competitor can attend.

Formation Dance is another style of competitive dance recognised by the IDSF.

Elements of competition

Intermediate level international style Latin dancing at the 2006 MIT ballroom dance competition. A judge stands in the foreground.

In competition ballroom dancers are judged by diverse criteria such as connection, frame, posture, speed, timing, proper body alignment, proper usage of weight/ankles/feet, and grooming. ^[5] Judging in a performance-oriented sport is inevitably subjective in nature, and controversy and complaints by competitors over judging placements are not uncommon. The scorekeepers—called scrutineers—will tally the total number recalls accumulated by each couple through each round until the finals, when the Skating system is used to place each couple by ordinals, typically 1-6, though the number of couples in the final can vary.

Medal examinations enable dancers' abilities to be recognized according to conventional standards. In medal exams, each dancer performs two or more dances in a certain genre (e.g., International Standard) in front of a judge. In North America, examination levels include Newcomer, Bronze, Silver, Gold and Championship. Each level (i.e. Newcomer, Bronze, Silver, Gold, Championship) may be further subdivided into either two or four separate sections.

How competition levels are separated may be different depending on the competition in question. In addition to the previously mentioned competition levels, most competitions offer a specific competition series for competitors that include Pre-Novice, Novice, Pre-Championship, and Championship. Pre-Novice usually consists of Cha-cha-cha and Rumba in closed position dance steps. No sequins are allowed on costumes at this level and choreography is basic in nature. Novice consists of two or three dances, Cha-cha-cha, Rumba, and Samba. Novice is open to any costumes and choreography contains both basic dance moves and fancy and expressive movements as well. Pre-Championship and Championships have the same costume and dance rules. The only difference is they add Jive and Paso Doble to the routine. This breakdown can vary per competition. Competitors choose their corresponding level of dance skill and experience to compete in and are further categorized as amateur dance couples, and professional teacher dancing with their amateur students. One can only compete against dancers of their own category for both the level and category.

Dances

In one common usage "ballroom dance" refers to the ten dances of International Standard and International Latin, though the term is also often used interchangeably with the five International Standard dances ^[6] In the United States, the American Style (American Smooth and American Rhythm) also exists. The dance technique used for both International and American styles is similar, but International Standard allows only closed dance positions, whereas American Smooth allows closed, open and separated dance movements. In addition, different sets of dance patterns are usually taught for the two styles. International Latin and American Rhythm have different styling, and have different dance patterns in their respective syllabi.

Others dances sometimes placed under the umbrella "ballroom dance" include Nightclub Dances such as Lindy Hop, West Coast Swing, Nightclub Two Step, Hustle, Salsa, and Merengue. The categorization of dances as "ballroom dances" has always been fluid, with new dances or folk dances being added to/removed from to the ballroom repertoire from time to time, so no list of subcategories or dances is any more than a description of current practices. There are other dances historically accepted as ballroom dances, and are revived via the Vintage dance movement.

In Europe, Latin Swing dances include Argentine Tango, Mambo, Lindy Hop, Swing Boogie (sometimes also known as Nostalgic Boogie), and Disco Fox. One example of this is the subcategory of Cajun dances that originated in New Orleans, with branches reaching both coasts of the United States.

Standard/Smooth dances are normally danced to Western music (often from the mid-twentieth century), and couples dance counter-clockwise around a rectangular floor following the line of dance. In competitions, competitors are costumed as would be appropriate for a white tie affair, with full gowns for the ladies and bow tie and tail coats for the men; though in American Smooth it is now conventional for the men to abandon the tailsuit in favor of shorter tuxedos, vests, and other creative outfits.

Latin/Rhythm dances are commonly danced to contemporary Latin American music, and with the exception of a few traveling dances (e.g. Samba and Paso Doble) couples do not follow the line of dance and perform their routines more or less in one spot. In competitions, the women are often dressed in short-skirted latin outfits while the men outfitted in tight-fitting shirts and pants; the goal being to bring emphasis to the dancers' leg action and body movements.

International Style

International Standard

Slow Waltz - Tango - Viennese Waltz - Slow Foxtrot - Quickstep

International Latin

Cha-cha-cha^[7]^[8] - Samba - Rumba - Paso Doble - Jive

American Style

American Smooth

Waltz - Tango - Foxtrot - Viennese Waltz

American Rhythm

Cha Cha - Rumba - East Coast Swing - Bolero - Mambo

Historical/Vintage Dance

Waltz - Polka - Schottische - Tango - One-Step - Foxtrot - Peabody

Other dances occasionally categorized as ballroom

Nightclub

Nightclub Two-step - Hustle - Modern Jive / LeRoc / Ceroc - and the whole swing variety: West Coast Swing / East Coast Swing/ Lindy Hop (always included in the "Rhythm-Swing" category) / Carolina Shag / Collegiate Shag

Latin nightclub

Salsa - Merengue - Cumbia - Bachata - Cha cha

Brazilian Dances

Forró - Pagode - Samba de Gafieira - Lambada

Country/Western

Polka - Cha-cha-cha - Two-step - Waltz...

also referred to as "Country and Western" or C/W:

C/W Polka - C/W Cha-cha - C/W Two-step - C/W Waltz...

Cajun dances

Cajun One Step or Cajun Jig - Cajun Two Step - Zydeco - Cajun Waltz - Cajun Jitterbug

Musette dances

Java, musette-waltz, musette-tango, musette-paso-doble.

Other

Argentine tango

Belly Dance

Sat, 25 Jul 2009 09:57:39 +0100

Belly dance

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

"Oriental dance" redirects here. For other forms of dance from the Middle East, see Middle Eastern dance.

For the single by Akon, see Belly Dancer (Bananza).

The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (June 2009)

Raqs Sharqi dancer Chryssanthi Sahar Scharf, Heidelberg.

Belly dance (Arabic: رقص شرقي‎) is a Western term for a traditional Arab dance genre known as raqs sharqi (رقص شرقي; literally "oriental dance") or sometimes raqs baladi (رقص بلدي; literally "dance of country", and so "folk" dance). It is also sometimes called "Middle Eastern Dance" or the "Arabic Dance" in the United States, "danse du ventre"^[1], or by the Turkish term Çiftetelli (τσιφτετέλι).

Native to the Middle East, and now popular worldwide, belly dance takes many different regional forms, both in costume and dance style, indicating that distinctive dance moves may have been transported to these regions and incorporated with local dance styles.

[hide]

1 General
2 Origins
3 Costume
4 Techniques
5 Raqs Sharqi
6 Turkish forms
7 Belly dancing in the Western world
8 Male belly dancing
9 Health and belly dancing
10 Prohibition of belly dancing
11 Belly dancing in pop culture
12 See also
13 References

General

Today there are two forms of Oriental belly dance. The first is called raqs baladi, a social dance performed for fun and celebration by men and women of all ages, usually during festive occasions such as weddings and other social gatherings. The second form, the more theatrical and the more popular in the West today, is called raqs sharqi. Like raqs baladi, raqs sharqi is performed by both male and female dancers. In regions where belly dancing is native, boys and girls learn it informally from an early age by observing and imitating their elders during family/community celebrations and gatherings with friends.^{[citation needed]}

Historically, most of the dances associated with belly dance were performed with the sexes separated; men with men and women with women. Few depictions of mixed dancing exist. This practice ensured that a "good" woman would not be seen dancing by anyone but her husband, her close family, or her female friends. Today, sex segregation is not as strictly practiced in many urban areas, and sometimes both men and women will dance socially among close friends at a mixed function. However, while social dancing at family functions is accepted and even encouraged, there are many people in Middle Eastern societies who regard the performances of professional dancers in revealing costumes for mixed audiences as morally objectionable. Some have even gone so far as to suggest that such performances be banned.^{[citation needed]}

Origins

Artistic depiction of belly dancing

Belly dancing was originally from Ancient Babylon in southern Iraq.^{[citation needed]} Adnanite Arabs introduced belly dancing and drumming. Belly dancing was passed on from generation to generation. The drum beats people hear today are the same beats that the Arab tribal men used. Before the arrival of Islam the tribes in Arabia used to gather women in private gatherings or special occasions and perform the belly-dancing, while men from the tribe perform on the drum.^{[citation needed]} Men used to have large feasts of food and wine and watch women while they were dancing.

After the Arrival of Islam, belly dancing was banned due to religious reasons. During the Ummayd and the Abbasid dynasties in Iraq, belly dancing was promoted as a trade by rich people. They used local poor women and, later on, slaves from other parts of the world, especially Persia, India/Pakistan and North Africa and had the local Arab women teach them how to perform the belly dance.

During the time of the Abbasid and the Fatimid dynasties, the Arabs settled in Egypt and passed on the belly dance. Since that time, the Egyptians adopted the dance and it was passed on through generations. Egyptians have been known for having good belly dancers.

There is also some evidence that belly dancing is a reworking of movements traditionally utilized to demonstrate or ease childbirth. There are numerous oral historical references, backed by commentary in The Dancer of Shamahka. This particularly relates to a sub-set of dance movements found in modern raqs sharqi.[1].

Costume

Because the most visible venue for belly dance is nightclubs (as well as video and DVD recordings of popular Egyptian dance celebrities), it is this version, rather than the folk or social versions, that is most popular. The costume now associated with this dance is called bedleh in Arabic (meaning "suit"), and was adopted by dancers in Egypt in the 1930s, eventually spreading to other countries in the region. It owes its creation to the harem fantasy productions of vaudeville, burlesque, and Hollywood during the turn of the last century, rather than to actual authentic Middle Eastern dress. Lebanese Badia Masabni dubbed the godmother of oriental dance, singer, actress, and a night club owner in Cairo is credited with adopting this costume because it was the image that Western tourists came to expect, rather than the native caftan/kaftan - which mostly concealed the contours of the body, with a scarf or belt tied around the hips to highlight the movements. The caftan is still used by performers to cover their costumes when not on stage. One of the major contributions Badia made to oriental dance was lifting it up out of the traditions of chaabi or traditional dancing. Where before the belly dancer had a limited repertoire of arm movements she got the idea not only holding them out to the sides, but lifting them higher above the head and using more flowing gestures later known as snake arms. Not only did Badia Masabni's ideas influence how dancers carried their arms and the use of veils. She also influenced dancers to use more space on the stage. The ghawazee and almeh were performing almost entirely on one spot.

Since the 1950s, it has been illegal in Egypt, for belly dancers to perform publicly with their abdomens uncovered. Costumes for Raks Sharki are usually a long, one-piece gown or a two-piece outfit (a decorated bra top and skirt) with a sheer body stocking covering the midsection. In either case, the costumes are usually elaborate and elegant, with rich fabrics lavished with bead work, jewels, and beaded fringe. Beaded belts are usually sewn directly onto the skirt and there are matching accessories such as necklaces, arm and ankle bracelets, earrings, and headpieces. The look for Raks Sharki is glamorous and feminine

Lebanese belly dance costumes are usually elegant nightclub styles, consisting of the typical two-piece belly dance outfit of a decorated bra top and a matching belt (usually beaded) over a skirt. The skirts tend to be sheer and/or are made with less fabric than Egyptian styled outfits, showing more of the dancer's body. Using rich fabrics and jewelry the costumes of Lebanese belly dancers are very glamorous, sexy, flirtatious and elegant. The veil is more widely used and the veil matches the outfit. Unlike Egyptian dancers, Lebanese belly dancers are allowed to uncover their abdomen in public performances and do so. A unique characteristic of Lebanese dance is that the dancers often wear high heels when they dance.

Turkish costumes, especially in the 1970s and 1980s, were notorious for their brevity and sexiness. The costumes are usually the typical decorated bra top and belly dance skirt with belt. However, often the skirts are made with less fabric than the American belly dance or Egyptian belly dance style, and are very brief, showing more of the dancer's body. Beaded belts are most common and there are matching accessories such as necklaces, arm and ankle bracelets, earrings, and headpieces. Sheer fabrics are usually used in the skirt and the costumes often have cutouts on the belts or bra/bodice. Typically, the look in Turkish belly dance costumes is sexy, playful, and flirtatious

American belly dance costuming generally has a glamorous or luxurious style (think Hollywood or couture design). Classic American belly dancers usually wear a two-piece outfit, with a decorated bra top, vest, or blouse on top with a skirt and/or 'harem' pants secured at the hips (with the midriff usually, but not always, uncovered). Fabrics most often used are silks, satins, chiffons, lamés, and fabrics that glitter with sequins, beads, or metallic threads.

The mainstays of costuming for the bedlah style include a fitted top or bra (usually with a fringe of beads or coins), a fitted hip belt (again with a fringe of beads or coins), and a skirt(s) (straight, layered, circular, or paneled). In the western world a "veil" - a 3-1/2 to 4-yard piece of fabric - may also be used to accentuate swirling arm movements throughout an entire dance or part of a dance. Most Egyptian dancers use the veil as an opening prop which they discard within the first few minutes of their routines.

In Egypt, America and Europe dancers wear full-beaded dresses for the folkloric and baladi dances. But generally costuming varies with the particular style of dance. Usually belly dance is associated with a cabaret costume. The cabaret costume usually consists of hip belt, bra, skirt and/or harem pants, and one or more veils. Decorative arm coverings, wristbands, headpieces, neckbands, scarves, face veils, jewelry and shoes are optional. Makeup usually is a very important piece of costume. The belly dancer’s belt should be around the dancer’s hips, leaving the waist free to perform moves and belly rolls. The belt may have straight edge, or may be curved or angled and it should have jewels, coins, hanging fringe, or tassels on it to emphasize the movements of the hips. The dancer’s bra usually matches the belt in its decorative details and does not resemble lingerie. The classic harem pants are full, and gathered at the ankle, but could be modified. For cabaret pants are usually worn under skirt, because there could be revealed too much leg during the spins. The skirts are usually circle of different kinds of design and usually voluminous. The classic veil is usually three yards of sheer or featherweight fabric, often with decorative borders. Often to enhance the mystique of the dancer henna body art is often used. Henna is a natural vegetable dye which is prepared as a pate and topically applied to the skin. Usually henna is applied to the hands and feet. When removed after several hours, it it leaves reddish brown stain on the skin. Props are used to spark audience interest and add variety to the performance. Traditionally dancers were also performers, singers and musicians. There is a tradition to wear percussion instruments. Nevertheless today only very high skilled belly dancers use finger cymbals, many dancers rely on musicians to play for them. Some dancers use sticks and canes in their performances. Dancing with a veil which flows beautifully with dance movements adds a touch of elegance to the dance performance. Some dancers use sword for their performance, what can make the dance powerful and dramatic. The candles lights, which can dance with he dancer, add in the performance some mystery and drama. Some dancers use tambourine. This prop is very popular with Gypsy style troupes.

Techniques

Most of the basic steps and techniques used in belly dancing involve circular motions isolated to a certain part of the body. For example, a circular movement "drawn" parallel to the floor by the hips is known as a "hip circle", or by the rib-cage known as a "chest circle". Accents such as "hip lifts" or "drops" are use to draw the eye to hip movement such as "shimmies or hip circles", while shoulder or arm movements are to accent chest or belly undulations. Dancers often dance while balancing various props like baskets, swords or canes(canes in particular for folkloric dances.)as well as using silk or chiffon veils and wings for dramatic dance pieces.

Raqs Sharqi

Raqs Sharqi belly dancing consists of movements that are executed throughout the body. The focus of the dance is the pelvic and hip area. It is, fundamentally, a solo improvisational dance with its own unique dance vocabulary that is fluidly integrated with the music’s rhythm.

Raqs Sharqi dancers internalize and express the emotions evoked by the lyrics and the music. Appropriately, the music is integral to the dance. The most admired Raqs Sharqi dancers are those who can best project their emotions through dance, even if their dance is made up of simple movements. The dancer’s goal is to visually communicate to the audience the emotion and rhythm of the music. Raqs Sharqi translates from Arabic as "dance of the Orient" or "Oriental Dance". Belly dance is a misnomer as the all parts of the body are involved in the dance, and the most important body part is the hips. The dancer’s goal is to visually communicate to the audience the emotion and rhythm of the music.

Many see Raqs Sharqi as a woman's dance, celebrating the sensuality and power of being a mature woman. A common school of thought believes that young dancers have limited life experience to use as a catalyst for dance.^{[citation needed]} Sohair Zaki, Fifi Abdou, Lucy, Nagua Fouad, and Dina are all popular Egyptian dancers above the age of forty.

Despite the fame of female dancers, men often perform Raqs Sharqi as well, however, not in public in Arab countries.

Egyptian-style raqs sharqi is based on Baladi who adpoted it from the Arab Tribes originally from Arabia and settled in Upper Egypt. Later the work of belly dance legends Samia Gamal, Tahiya Karioka, Naima Akef, and other dancers who rose to fame during the golden years of the Egyptian film industry. Later dancers who based their styles partially on the dances of these artists are Sohair Zaki, Fifi Abdou, and Nagwa Fouad. All rose to fame between 1960 and 1980, are still popular today, and have nearly risen to the same level of stardom and influence on the style.

Though the basic movements of Raqs Sharqi have remained the same, the dance form continues to evolve. Nelly Mazloum and Mahmoud Reda are noted for incorporating elements of ballet into Raqs Sharqi and their influence can be seen in modern Egyptian dancers who stand on relevé as they turn or travel through their dance space in a circle or figure eight.

In Egypt, three main forms of the traditional dance are associated with belly dance: Baladi/Beledi, Sha'abi and Sharqi.

Arabic belly dance was among the first styles to be witnessed by Westerners. During Napoleon's invasion of Egypt (the campaign which yielded the Rosetta stone, leading to the translation of Egyptian hieroglyphics), Napoleon's troops encountered the Ghawazee tribe. The Ghawazee made their living as professional entertainers and musicians. The women often engaged in prostitution on the side, and often had a street dedicated to their trade in the towns where they resided, though some were quasi-nomadic.

Turkish forms

Some mistakenly believe that Turkish oriental dancing is known as Çiftetelli because this style of music has been incorporated into oriental dancing by Arabs and greeks, illustrated by the fact that the Greek belly dance is called Tsifteteli. However, Turkish Çiftetelli is more correctly a form of wedding folk music, the part that makes up the lively part of the dance at the wedding and is not connected with oriental dancing.

Turkish belly dance today may have been influenced by Arab people before the Ottoman Empire as much as by the Egyptian and Syrian/Lebanese forms, having developed from the Ottoman rakkas to the oriental dance known worldwide today. As Turkish law does not impose restrictions on Turkish dancers' movements and costuming as in Egypt, where dancers are prevented from performing floor work and certain pelvic movements, Turkish dancers are often more outwardly expressive than their Egyptian counterparts. Many professional dancers and musicians in Turkey continue to be of Romani heritage as well. (However, people of Turkish Romani heritage also have a distinct dance style which is uniquely different from the Turkish Oriental style.) Turkish dancers are known for their energetic, athletic (even gymnastic) style, and particularly, until the past few years, their adept use of finger cymbals, also known as zils. Connoisseurs of Turkish dance often say that a dancer who cannot play the zils is not an accomplished dancer. Another distinguishing element of the Turkish style is the use of the Karsilama rhythm in a 9/8 time signature, counted as 12-34-56-789. Turkish belly dance costumes can be very revealing, with the belt sometimes worn high up on the waist and split skirts which expose the entire leg, although dancers today are costuming themselves more like Egyptian dancers and wearing more modest "mermaid"-style skirts. The Turkish style is emphasized further by the dancer wearing high heels and often platform shoes. Famous Turkish belly dancers include Tulay Karaca, Nesrin Topkapi and Birgul Berai.

When immigrants from Arab States began to immigrate to New York in the 1930s and 1940s, dancers started to perform a mixture of these styles in the nightclubs and restaurants. Often called "Classic Cabaret" or "American Cabaret" belly dance, these dancers are the grandmothers and great-grandmothers of some of today's most accomplished performers, such as Anahid Sofian, Aisha Ali, and Artemis Mourat.^{[citation needed]}

Belly dancing in the Western world

This article or section has multiple issues. Please help improve the article or discuss these issues on the talk page.

It needs additional references or sources for verification. Tagged since May 2009.
Its external links may not comply with Wikipedia's content policies or guidelines.
Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links. Tagged since May 2009.
It contains predictions, speculative material or accounts of events that might not occur. Please help improve this article or section by removing speculative content. Tagged since May 2009.

Popularization of belly dance

Outside the Middle East, raqs sharqi dancing was popularized during the Romantic movement of the 18th and 19th centuries, whereby Orientalist artists depicted their interpretations of harem life in the Ottoman Empire. Around this time, dancers from different Middle Eastern countries began to perform at various World Fairs. They often drew crowds that rivaled those of the technology exhibits.

The term "belly dancing" is generally credited to Sol Bloom, entertainment director of the 1893 World's Fair, the World Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Although there were dancers of this type present at the 1876 Centennial in Philadelphia, it was not until the 1893 fair that it gained national attention. There were authentic dancers from several Middle Eastern and North African countries, including Syria, Turkey and Algeria, but it was the dancers in the Egyptian Theater of The Street in Cairo exhibit who gained the most notoriety. The rapid hip movements and the fact that the dancers were uncorseted, was considered shocking to the Victorian sensibilities of the day. In fact, there were attempts by many, most notably Anthony Comstock, head of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, to have the Egyptian theater closed.^{[citation needed]}

Although it is popularly believed that a dancer named "Fatima", also known as Little Egypt, stole the show, and continued to popularize this form of dancing, there is in fact no evidence to support this claim.^[2] Neither photographs, nor reviews of the Egyptian Theater mention any such person. The truth is that photographs, as well as accounts of the entertainments, show that there was not one solo dancer, but an entire troupe who performed in the Egyptian Theater. The popularity of these dancers spawned dozens of imitators after the Fair, many of whom claimed to have been dancers at the Chicago Fair. The most well known was Farida Mazar Spyropoulos, who was neither Egyptian nor Algerian, but Syrian.^{[citation needed]}

The dance performed by the many dancers calling themselves "Little Egypt" was nicknamed the "Hootchy-Kootchy" or "Hoochee-Coochee", or the shimmy and shake. Due to cultural misunderstanding about the nature of the dance and misrepresentations by the many imitators in Burlesque halls and carnival sideshows, the western world considered it risqué. A short film, "Fatima's Dance," was widely distributed in the nickelodeon movie theaters. It drew criticism for its "immodest" dancing, and was eventually censored due to public pressure.^{[citation needed]}

Thomas Edison also made several films of dancers in the 1890s in response to the craze. These included the Turkish dance, Ella Lola, 1898, and Crissie Sheridan in 1897, both available for on-line viewing through the Library of Congress. Another in this collection is Princess Rajah dance from 1904, which features a dancer playing zils (finger cymbals), doing "floor work", and balancing a chair in her teeth.^{[citation needed]}

Several dancers, such as the French author Colette, and many other music hall performers, engaged in "oriental" dancing, sometimes passing off their own interpretations as authentic folkloric styles. There was also the sensational pseudo-Javanese dancer Mata Hari, who was convicted in 1917 by the French for being a German spy during World War I.^{[citation needed]}. The great dancer Ruth St. Denis also engaged in Middle Eastern-inspired dancing, but her approach was to put "oriental" dancing on the stage in the context of ballet, her goal being to lift all dance to a respectable art form. (In the early 1900s, it was a common social assumption in America and Europe that dancers were women of loose morals.)

While the beautiful classical Raqs Sharqi is still popular in the West, many dancers have created fusion forms such as American Tribal Style inspired by the folkloric dance styles of India, the Middle East and North Africa and even flamenco. Dancers in the United States, while respecting the origins of belly dance, are also exploring and creating within the dance form. Many women today in the U.S. and Europe approach belly dance as a tool for empowerment and strengthening of the body, mind, and spirit. Issues of body-image, self-esteem, healing from sexual violation, sisterhood, and self-authentication are regularly addressed in belly dance classes everywhere.^{[citation needed]}

United States

Tribal-style belly dancers.

With its emergence at the 1893 World's Fair, the last four decades of the 20th century moved belly dance in the U.S. more into the mainstream. The current interest in the dance can be traced back to the 1950s and '60s. It was in the ethnic nightclubs in major cities like New York, that most Americans first became acquainted with the dance. These clubs were owned, operated and patronized by members of the ethnic communities of Mediterranean countries like Greece, Turkey, Lebanon and Syria. At the time, most of the dancers were Greek or Turkish, but in time their ranks would grow to include Americans as well.^{[citation needed]}

In the late 1960s and early '70s many of these dancers began offering dance classes. With increasing exploration of the East in the late 1960s, many people became interested in everything Eastern, including dance. Many touring Middle Eastern or Eastern bands took dancers with them as they toured to provide a visual representation of their music, which helped to spark interest in the dance. The increased interest in belly dancing created diverse names for the same simple movements and the need to have a "style" as each teacher tried to distinguish differences in their way of teaching from other teachers. This has hampered belly dance from acceptance with the more established dance forms because there is no nationally recognized choreography terminology that can be used to create repeatable dances.^{[citation needed]}

A recent movement in the U.S. called American Tribal Style Belly Dance, or ATS, represents everything from folklore-inspired dances to the fusion of ancient dance techniques from North India, the Middle East, and Africa. Created in 1987 by Carolena Nericcio, founder of FatChanceBellydance in San Francisco, ATS has a format consisting of a vocabulary of steps that are designed to be performed improvisationally in a lead-follow manner. ATS is performed in a group, typically with a chorus of dancers using zills, or finger cymbals, as accompaniment. The music can be folkloric or modern, and the costume is heavily layered, evoking traditions of any or all of its fusion of cultural influences.^{[citation needed]}

Multicultural trends that have shaped Western and U.S. belly dance are still at work. Ever evolving, this versatile dance keeps absorbing a blend of influences; modern fashion, film and television imagery, the worlds of country, rock, reggae, r&b, jazz, clubhouse, and hip hop music, underground subcultures, and many other contemporary influences. The umbrella term used to describe these hybrid forms of belly dance is "belly dance fusion". One of the newest belly dance fusion trends is tribal fusion, which combines many different dance forms, including traditional 'Egyptian' or 'Cabaret' belly dance, popping and many folkloric dance styles. Another new fusion trend is gothic belly dance that incorporates many belly dance styles and motifs and seeks to express the darkness of the unknown that has inspired the music, philosophies, and lifestyles of the Goth subculture. [2]^{[clarification needed]}

Canada

A belly dancer in Calgary, Alberta, Canada in 2008

Canada has a belly dance community much like the United States with many different styles ranging from Raqs Sharqi to Gypsy style. Many schools offer belly dance classes.

United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland

With its growing popularity in the western world, belly dance classes are thriving throughout the UK and Ireland, though the belly dance culture has been evidenced since the early 1960s, with many styles being taught including traditional, modern, tribal, Persian, Oriental, Turkish, Greek, Egyptian, American Tribal.

Many festivals and workshops are held over the various regions of both countries, with three of the most popular being the Annual Glastonbury Majma, [3], Raqs Britannia, [4] Jewel of Yorkshire, [5] the Khelashi Belly Dance set in Wexford, Ireland, [6] and the Rashani Tribal Belly Dance set in Dublin. [7]^{[clarification needed]}

September 2007 saw the first Annual International Bellydance Congress being held in the UK. [8]^{[clarification needed]}

Australia

The first wave of interest for belly dancing in Australia was during the late 70s to 80s with the influx of migrants and refugees escaping troubles in the Middle East, particularly the war in Lebanon. This was also the period that marked the increase in Middle Eastern musicians escaping the tensions in the region. Notable musicians of this period include drummer Jamal Zraika.

There were notable performers during this period. These included Amera Eid who started the first belly dance boutique in Australia, Amera’s Palace, and Terezka Drnzik who established the first full time belly dance school in Sydney, The Akademi of Danse Orientale. Both of these experienced dancers and teachers have pedigrees linked back to Rozeta Ahalyea whose career spanned four decades.

The biggest belly dancing event is the annual Sydney Middle Eastern Dance Festival which started out in 1990 as a Bellydance-a-thon to raise money for charity.

Notale Pioneers in the Melbourne Belly Dance scene include Belly dancers Alia, Azura, Melusina, Traisnasari, Andrea Makris, Jewel, Melissa Christina, Princess Jasmina, Male belly dancers Chris & Jamil, Pamela, Eugenia, Barbara, Egyptia & Australia's premier belly dance duo, Chris & Princess jasmina, currently perform at venues & events all over Melbourne, currently performing at Cupido's, 152 Lygon street Carlton every Friday & Saturday Night.

Melbourne's Premier Belly Dance Showcase Event, Harem nights Extravaganza, is a 6 monthly event providing live middle eastern music, workshops, stalls and an amazing showcase of dancers from all over Melbourne and guest stars from interstate such as Shiva of Sydney (April 3rd 2009) and Sahara of Sydney (September 5th 2009). Future Guests include Yasmina of Cairo Direct from Egypt (April 2010).

Tribal style belly dance in Australia is gaining popularity as well. The most notable figure in this scene is Devi Mamak, the first Australian to have been accepted as a certified Fat Chance Bellydance teacher under the guidance of Carolena Nerricio. New Fat Chance moves developed in Australia by Devi Mamak and her troupe, Ghawazi Caravan, will be added to the official list of repertoire in the 8th video. The new moves are Arabic with a turn, triangle and the crazy camel.^{[clarification needed]}

Male belly dancing

Male belly dancer in Istanbul Turkey.

There is much debate over where and when men became part of the belly dance world. In various media, the art form is most often represented and emphasized as empowering for women, which may imply a belief that men have no place in an art form that is frequently and erroneously believed to be historically female. However, dancers such as Morocco (Carolina Varga-Dinicu), Tariq Sultan, Jasmin Jahal, Chris (Melbourne, AUS), Shiva (Sydney AUS), Jamil (Sydney AUS) and Laurel Victoria Gray have produced ample evidence to the contrary.^[3]

Pictorial evidence in the form of Turkish miniatures made during the Ottoman Empire show public performances being done by young men and boys called köçeks. These dancers were widely popular; in fact, the Sultan employed a troupe of these male dancers in addition to a troupe of female dancers, (Metin And: A pictorial history of Turkish Dance). It has long been assumed that these dancers were female impersonators, because they performed in wide flamboyant skirts. A comparison with the female dancers however, shows that this was merely a costume worn for the dramatic effect caused by the swirling fabric. The female dancers did not wear specialized costumes at this time, but the ordinary dress of all women, which consisted of a pair of "harem pants", a long shirt, tight fitting vest covered by a flowing robe tied at the waist by a belt or shawl. Nevertheless, some of these male dancers did at times impersonate women. This was because they were not simply dancers but musicians and actors as well. As was the case in Shakespearean times, all dramatic roles were played by males since women were not allowed to entertain in public.

These dancers were so popular that fights often broke out over which troupe was considered the best.^{[citation needed]}These upheavals were so frequent that they resulted in such performances being banned for a period of time during the 1830s.^{[citation needed]} Eventually the ban was lifted, but the decline of the Ottoman Empire, together with a push for modernization and the adoption of western tastes led to the eventual decline of such performances in Istanbul as well as other countries of the Empire such as Egypt.^{[citation needed]} Eventually, due to tourist demand, their place was taken by female entertainers.^{[citation needed]} Köçek dancers can still be found in the rural communities of Turkey, most notably in the region of Kastamonu. They have even begun appearing on television variety shows and on DVDs throughout Turkey.^{[citation needed]}

The current professional version of raqs sharqi, developed in Egypt in the 1930s, was deliberately designed to display an idealized notion of feminine grace beauty and glamor. Even so men continued to play a behind the scenes role in its development. Many of the most renowned choreographers and coaches are in fact men, such as Ibrahim Akef (cousin of the dance star Naima Akef) and Mahmoud Reda (founder of the renowned Reda Ensemble, the first theater dance troupe of Egypt).

The current trend of male performers of this dance form started in the '60s and 70s in the United States by such performers and teachers as Ibrahim Farrah (an American of Lebanese descent from Pennsylvania), Roman "Bert" Balladine and John Compton to name a few. Today male belly dancers are becoming more visible, not only in the United States, but around the world.^{[citation needed]} These modern performers have even began to resurface in the Middle East in Greece, Turkey, Lebanon and Egypt. Most male dancers face artistic as well as social challenges. Such issues as whether there are or should be differences in costuming, attitude, and the dynamics of choreography between male and female belly dancing is a subject of debate among both male and female dancers.

Given the recent boom in interest regarding belly dance, a new generation of male dancers has embraced the form. Although still small in number compared to their female counterparts, their numbers have grown dramatically in the past 20 years.^{[citation needed<}

Aerobic Exercise

Sat, 25 Jul 2009 09:47:11 +0100

Aerobic exercise

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)

For other uses, see Aerobics.

Aerobic exercise is exercise that involves or improves oxygen consumption by the body.^[1] Aerobic means "with oxygen", and refers to the use of oxygen in the body's metabolic or energy-generating process.

Many types of exercise are aerobic, and by definition are performed at moderate levels of intensity for extended periods of time. To obtain the best results, an aerobic exercise session involves a warming up period, followed by at least 20 minutes of moderate to intense exercise involving large muscle groups, and a cooling down period at the end.^{[citation needed]}

Contents
[hide]

1 History
2 Aerobic versus anaerobic exercise
3 Aerobic capacity
4 Criticisms
5 Commercial success
6 Varieties of cardiovascular exercise

6.1 Indoor
6.2 Outdoor
6.3 Indoor or outdoor

7 Footnotes
8 References
9 See also

History

Both the term and the specific exercise method were developed by Kenneth H. Cooper, M.D., an exercise physiologist, and Col. Pauline Potts, a physical therapist, both in the United States Air Force. Dr. Cooper, an avowed exercise enthusiast, was personally and professionally puzzled about why some people with excellent muscular strength were still prone to poor performance at tasks such as long-distance running, swimming, and bicycling. He began measuring systematic human performance using a bicycle ergometer, and began measuring sustained performance in terms of a person's ability to use oxygen. His groundbreaking book, Aerobics, was published in 1968, and included scientific exercise programs using running, walking, swimming and bicycling. The book came at a fortuitous historical moment, when increasing weakness and inactivity in the general population was causing a perceived need for increased exercise. It became a bestseller. Cooper's data provided the scientific baseline for almost all modern aerobics programs, most of which are based on oxygen-consumption equivalency.

Aerobic versus anaerobic exercise

Fox and Haskell formula showing the split between aerobic (light orange) and anaerobic (dark orange) exercise and heart rate.

Aerobic exercise and fitness can be contrasted with anaerobic exercise, of which strength training and weight training are the most salient examples. The two types of exercise differ by the duration and intensity of muscular contractions involved, as well as by how energy is generated within the muscle. Initially during aerobic exercise, glycogen is broken down to produce glucose, which is then broken down using oxygen to generate energy. In the absence of these carbohydrates, fat metabolism is initiated instead. The latter is a slow process, and is accompanied by a decline in performance level. This gradual switch to fat as fuel is a major cause of what marathon runners call "hitting the wall". Anaerobic exercise, in contrast, refers to the initial phase of exercise, or to any short burst of intense exertion, in which the glycogen or sugar is consumed without oxygen, and is a far less efficient process. Operating anaerobically, an untrained 400 meter sprinter may "hit the wall" short of the full distance.

Aerobic exercise comprises innumerable forms. In general, it is performed at a moderate level of intensity over a relatively long period of time. For example, running a long distance at a moderate pace is an aerobic exercise, but sprinting is not. Playing singles tennis, with near-continuous motion, is generally considered aerobic activity, while golf or two person team tennis, with brief bursts of activity punctuated by more frequent breaks, may not be predominantly aerobic. Some sports are thus inherently "aerobic", while other aerobic exercises, such as fartlek training or aerobic dance classes, are designed specifically to improve aerobic capacity and fitness.

Among the recognized benefits of doing regular aerobic exercise are:

Strengthening the muscles involved in respiration, to facilitate the flow of air in and out of the lungs
Strengthening and enlarging the heart muscle, to improve its pumping efficiency and reduce the resting heart rate, known as aerobic conditioning
Toning muscles throughout the body
Improving circulation efficiency and reducing blood pressure
Increasing the total number of red blood cells in the body, facilitating transport of oxygen
Improved mental health, including reducing stress and lowering the incidence of depression

As a result, aerobic exercise can reduce the risk of death due to cardiovascular problems. In addition, high-impact aerobic activities (such as jogging or jumping rope) can stimulate bone growth, as well as reducing the risk of osteoporosis for both men and women. In addition to the health benefits of aerobic exercise, there are numerous performance benefits:

Increased storage of energy molecules such as fats and carbohydrates within the muscles, allowing for increased endurance
Neovascularization of the muscle sarcomeres to increase blood flow through the muscles
Increasing speed at which aerobic metabolism is activated within muscles, allowing a greater portion of energy for intense exercise to be generated aerobically
Improving the ability of muscles to use fats during exercise, preserving intramuscular glycogen
Enhancing the speed at which muscles recover from high intensity exercise

"Aerobics" is a particular form of aerobic exercise. Aerobics classes generally involve rapid stepping patterns, performed to music with cues provided by an instructor. This type of aerobic activity became quite popular in the United States after the 1970 publication of The New Aerobics by Dr. Kenneth H. Cooper, and went through a brief period of intense popularity in the 1980s, when many celebrities (such as Jane Fonda and Richard Simmons) produced videos or created television shows promoting this type of aerobic exercise. Group exercise aerobics can be divided into two major types: freestyle aerobics and pre-choreographed aerobics.

Aerobic capacity

'Aerobic capacity' describes the functional capacity of the cardiorespiratory system, (the heart, lungs and blood vessels). Aerobic capacity is defined as the maximum amount of oxygen the body can use during a specified period, usually during intense exercise.^[2] It is a function both of cardiorespiratory performance and the maximum ability to remove and utilize oxygen from circulating blood. To measure maximal aerobic capacity, an exercise physiologist or physician will perform a VO₂ max test, in which a subject will undergo progressively more strenuous exercise on a treadmill, from an easy walk through to exhaustion. The individual is typically connected to a respirometer to measure oxygen consumption, and the speed is increased incrementally over a fixed duration of time. The higher the measured cardiorespiratory endurance level, the more oxygen has been transported to and used by exercising muscles, and the higher the level of intensity at which the individual can exercise. More simply stated, the higher the aerobic capacity, the higher the level of aerobic fitness. The Cooper and multi-stage fitness tests can also be used to assess functional aerobic capacity for particular jobs or activities.

The degree to which aerobic capacity can be improved by exercise varies very widely in the human population: while the average response to training is an approximately 17% increase in VO₂max, in any population there are "high responders" who may as much as double their capacity, and "low responders" who will see little or no benefit from training.^[3] Studies indicate that approximately 10% of otherwise healthy individuals cannot improve their aerobic capacity with exercise at all.^[4] The degree of an individual's responsiveness is highly heritable, suggesting that this trait is genetically determined.^[3]

Criticisms

When overall fitness is an occupational requirement, as it is for athletes, soldiers, and police and fire personnel, aerobic exercise alone may not provide a well balanced exercise program. In particular, muscular strength, especially upper-body muscular strength, may be neglected. Also, the metabolic pathways involved in anaerobic metabolism (glycolysis and lactic acid fermentation) that generate energy during high intensity, low duration tasks, such as sprinting, are not exercised at peak aerobic exercise levels. Aerobic exercise remains however a valuable component of a balanced exercise program and is good for cardiovascular health.

Some persons suffer repetitive stress injuries with some forms of aerobics, and then must choose less injurious, "low-impact" forms of aerobics, or lengthen the gap between bouts of exercise to allow for greater recovery.

Aerobics does not increase the basal metabolic rate as much as some forms of weight-training (which builds muscle mass), and may therefore be less effective at reducing obesity.^{[citation needed]} Further, higher intensity exercise, such as High-intensity interval training (HIIT), increases the resting metabolic rate (RMR) in the 24 hours following high intensity exercise,^[5] ultimately burning more calories than lower intensity exercise; low intensity exercise burns more calories during the exercise, but fewer afterwards.

Aerobic activity is also used by individuals with anorexia as a means of suppressing appetite, since aerobic exercise increases sugar and fatty acids in the blood by stimulating tissues to release their energy stores. While there is some support for exercising while hungry as a means of tapping into fat stores, most evidence is equivocal. In addition, performance can be impaired by lack of nutrients, which will reduce training effects.

Commercial success

Aerobic exercise has long been a popular form of weight loss and physical fitness, often taking a commercial form.

Tennis and jogging gained prominence and popularity in the 1970s, and significantly reduced the number of obese Americans.^{[citation needed]}
Judi Sheppard Missett largely helped create the market for commercial aerobics with her Jazzercise program in the 1970s
Richard Simmons hosted an aerobic exercise show on television, beginning in the 1980s, and continued with a variety of exercise videos.
Billy Blanks's Tae Bo helped popularize cardio-boxing, workouts that used martial arts movements in the 1990s
The Nia Technique, also called Neuromuscular Integrative Action, was developed in the 1980s as a form of "non-impact" aerobics (the original word is in the acronym). This is in contrast to popular "no pain no gain" attitudes, and attempted to combat the problem of impact injuries.

Varieties of cardiovascular exercise

Indoor

stair climbing
elliptical trainer
indoor rower
stairmaster
stationary bicycle
treadmill

Outdoor

cross-country skiing
cycling
inline skating
jogging
nordic walking

Indoor or outdoor

kickboxing
swimming

Footnotes

^ aerobic - Dictionary definition and pronunciation - Yahoo! Education
^ Merriam-Webster Medical dictionary definition
^ ^a ^b Bouchard, Claude; Ping An, Treva Rice, James S. Skinner, Jack H. Wilmore, Jacques Gagnon, Louis Perusse, Arthus S. Leon, D. C. Rao (01 September 1999). "Familial aggregation of VO(2max) response to exercise training: results from the HERITAGE Family Study". Journal of Applied Physiology 87 (3): 1003–1008. PMID 10484570. http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/87/3/1003?ijkey=189eebcbc5a461258da582b4aef41ebcf7bec51f&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha. Retrieved on 2007-07-17.
^ Kolata, Gina (February 12, 2002). "Why Some People Won't Be Fit Despite Exercise". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9406EEDE113CF931A25751C0A9649C8B63&sec=health&pagewanted=print. Retrieved on 2007-07-17.
^ East Tennessee State University Thesis

References

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Aerobic

Cooper, Kenneth C. The New Aerobics. Eldora, Iowa: Prairie Wind.
Donatelle, Rebecca J. Health: The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005.
Hinkle, J. Scott. School Children and Fitness: Aerobics for Life. Ann Arbor, MI: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Personnel Services.
Exercite Glossary. Definition: Aerobic Exercise. Exercite Glossary Definition: Aerobic Exercise

See also

5BX, for men
XBX, for women

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_exercise"

Categories: Aerobic exercise | Exercise physiology

Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from January 2008 | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from August 2008 | Articles with unsourced statements from June 2009 | Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009

Physical Exercise

Sat, 25 Jul 2009 09:43:20 +0100

Physical exercise

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Exercise)

Jump to: navigation, search

"Workout" redirects here. For the television series, see Work Out.

"Exercise" redirects here. For other uses, see Exercise (disambiguation).

U.S. Marine emerging from the swim portion of a triathlon.

Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health. It is performed for many different reasons. These include strengthening muscles and the cardiovascular system, honing athletic skills, weight loss or maintenance and for enjoyment. Frequent and regular physical exercise boosts the immune system, and helps prevent the "diseases of affluence" such as heart disease, cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes and obesity.^[1]^[2] It also improves mental health and helps prevent depression. Childhood obesity is a growing global^{[citation needed]} concern and physical exercise may help decrease the effects of childhood obesity in developed countries.

Contents
[hide]

1 Types of exercise
2 Categories of physical exercise
3 Exercise benefits
4 Common misconceptions

4.1 Targeted fat reduction
4.2 Muscle and fat tissue

5 Excessive exercise
6 Exercise trends
7 Nutrition and recovery
8 Exercise and brain function
9 Effect on the immune system
10 Breathing
11 History
12 See also
13 References
14 Sources
15 Further reading

Types of exercise

Exercises are generally grouped into three types depending on the overall effect they have on the human body:

Flexibility exercises, such as stretching, improve the range of motion of muscles and joints.^[3]
Aerobic exercises, such as cycling, swimming, walking, rowing, running, hiking or playing tennis, focus on increasing cardiovascular endurance.^[4]
Anaerobic exercises, such as weight training, functional training or sprinting, increase short-term muscle strength.^[5]

Categories of physical exercise

Aerobic exercise
Anaerobic exercise
Strength training
Agility training

Sometimes the terms 'dynamic' and 'static' are used. 'Dynamic' exercises such as steady running, tend to produce a lowering of the diastolic blood pressure during exercise, due to the improved blood flow. Conversely, static exercise (such as weight-lifting) can cause the systolic pressure to rise significantly (during the exercise).

Exercise benefits

A common elliptical training machine.

Physical exercise is important for maintaining physical fitness and can contribute positively to maintaining a healthy weight, building and maintaining healthy bone density, muscle strength, and joint mobility, promoting physiological well-being, reducing surgical risks, and strengthening the immune system.

Exercise also reduces levels of cortisol, thereby benefiting health. Cortisol is a stress hormone that builds fat in the abdominal region, making weight loss difficult. Cortisol causes many health problems, both physical and mental.^[6]

Frequent and regular aerobic exercise has been shown to help prevent or treat serious and life-threatening chronic conditions such as high blood pressure, obesity, heart disease, Type 2 diabetes, insomnia, and depression.^[7] Strength training appears to have continuous energy-burning effects that persist for about 24 hours after the training, though they do not offer the same cardiovascular benefits as aerobic exercises do.

There is conflicting evidence as to whether vigorous exercise (more than 70% of VO₂ Max) is more or less beneficial than moderate exercise (40 to 70% of VO₂ Max). Some studies have shown that vigorous exercise executed by healthy individuals can effectively increase opioid peptides (a.k.a. endorphins, naturally occurring opioids that in conjunction with other neurotransmitters are responsible for exercise-induced euphoria and have been shown to be addictive), positively influence hormone production (i.e., increase testosterone and growth hormone),^[8] benefits that are not as fully realized with moderate exercise.

Exercise has been shown to improve cognitive functioning via improvement of hippocampus-dependent spatial learning, and enhancement of synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis.^[9] In addition, physical activity has been shown to be neuroprotective in many neurodegenerative and neuromuscular diseases.^[10] For instance, it reduces the risk of developing dementia.^[11] Furthermore, anecdotal evidence suggests that frequent exercise may reverse alcohol-induced brain damage.^[12]

Physical activity is thought to have other beneficial effects related to cognition as it increases levels of nerve growth factors, which support the survival and growth of a number of neuronal cells.^[13]

Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise also work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume (aerobic exercise), or myocardial thickness (strength training). Such changes are generally beneficial and healthy if they occur in response to exercise.

Not everyone benefits equally from exercise. There is tremendous variation in individual response to training: where most people will see a moderate increase in endurance from aerobic exercise, some individuals will as much as double their oxygen uptake, while others will never get any benefit at all from the exercise.^[14]^[15] Similarly, only a minority of people will show significant muscle growth after prolonged weight training, while a larger fraction experience improvements in strength.^[16] This genetic variation in improvement from training is one of the key physiological differences between elite athletes and the larger population.^[17]^[18] Studies have shown that exercising in middle age leads to better physical ability later in life.^[19]

Common misconceptions

Many myths have arisen surrounding exercise, some of which have a basis in reality, and some which are completely false. Myths include:

That excessive exercise can cause immediate death. Death by exercise has some small basis in fact. Water intoxication can result from prolific sweating (producing electrolyte losses) combined with consumption of large amounts of plain water and insufficient replenishment of electrolytes, especially salt and potassium (e.g. when running a marathon). It is also possible to die from a heart attack or similar affliction if overly intense exercise is performed by someone who is not at an appropriate level of fitness for that particular activity. A doctor should always be consulted before any radical changes are made to a person's current exercise routine. Rhabdomyolysis is also a risk. Other common dangers may occur from extreme overheating or aggravation of a physical defect, such as a thrombosis or aneurysm.
That weightlifting makes you short or stops growth. One highly debated caveat is that heavy weight training in adolescents can damage the epiphyseal plate of long bones.^{[citation needed]}

Targeted fat reduction

Spot reduction is a myth that consists in believing that exercising and training a particular body part will preferentially shed the fat on that part. For example, doing sit-ups is not the best way to reduce subcutaneous belly fat. One cannot reduce fat from one area of the body to the exclusion of others. Most of the energy derived from fat gets to the muscle through the bloodstream and reduces stored fat in the entire body, from the last place where fat was deposited. Sit-ups may improve the size and shape of abdominal muscles but will not specifically target belly fat for loss. Such exercise might help reduce overall body fat and shrink the size of fat cells.

Muscle and fat tissue

One misconception is that muscle tissue will turn into fat tissue once a person stops exercising. This is not literally true — fat tissue and muscle tissue are fundamentally different — but the common expression that "muscle will turn to fat" is truthful in the sense that catabolism of muscle fibers for energy can result in excess glucose being stored as fat.^[20] Moreover, the composition of a body part can change toward less muscle and more fat, so that a cross-section of the upper-arm for example, will have a greater area corresponding to fat and a smaller area corresponding to muscle. This is not muscle "turning into fat" however — it is simply a combination of muscle atrophy and increased fat storage in different tissues of the same body part. Another element of increased fatty deposits is that of diet, as most trainees will not significantly reduce their diet in order to compensate for the lack of exercise/activity.

Excessive exercise

Exercise is a stressor and the stresses of exercise have a catabolic effect on the body - contractile proteins within muscles are consumed for energy, carbohydrates and fats are similarly consumed and connective tissues are stressed and can form micro-tears. However, given adequate nutrition and sufficient rest to avoid overtraining, the body's reaction to this stimulus is to adapt and replete tissues at a higher level than that existing before exercising. The results are all the training effects of regular exercise: increased muscular strength, endurance, bone density, and connective tissue toughness.

Too much exercise can be harmful. The body parts exercised need at least a day of rest, which is why some health experts say one should exercise every other day or 3 times a week. Without proper rest, the chance of stroke or other circulation problems increases,^[21] and muscle tissue may develop slowly. It has also been noted by the medical field that expectant mothers should never exercise two days consecutively.^{[citation needed]}

Inappropriate exercise can do more harm than good, with the definition of "inappropriate" varying according to the individual. For many activities, especially running, there are significant injuries that occur with poorly regimented exercise schedules. In extreme instances, over-exercising induces serious performance loss. Unaccustomed overexertion of muscles leads to rhabdomyolysis (damage to muscle) most often seen in new army recruits.^[22] Another danger is overtraining in which the intensity or volume of training exceeds the body's capacity to recover between bouts.^[23]

Stopping excessive exercise suddenly can also create a change in mood. Feelings of depression and agitation can occur when withdrawal from the natural endorphins produced by exercise occurs. Exercise should be controlled by each body's inherent limitations. While one set of joints and muscles may have the tolerance to withstand multiple marathons, another body may be damaged by 20 minutes of light jogging. This must be determined by each individual.

Too much exercise can also cause a female to miss her period, a symptom known as amenorrhea.^[24]

Exercise trends

Main article: Exercise trends

Worldwide there has been a large shift towards less physically demanding work.^[25] This has been accompanied by increasing use of mechanized transportation, a greater prevalence of labor saving technology in the home, and less active recreational pursuits.^[25]

Nutrition and recovery

Proper nutrition is at least as important to health as exercise. When exercising, it becomes even more important to have a good diet to ensure that the body has the correct ratio of macronutrients whilst providing ample micronutrients, in order to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise.^[26]

Proper rest and recovery are also as important to health as exercise; otherwise the body exists in a permanently injured state and will not improve or adapt adequately to the exercise. Hence, it is important to remember to allow adequate recovery between exercise sessions. It is necessary to refill the glycogen stores in the skeletal muscles and liver. After exercise, there is a 30 minute window critical to muscle recovery. Before doing anything else, one should drink something for recovery. Liquids are ideal after exercise and there are several studies that show low-fat milk and chocolate milk as being effective recovery beverages because of its ideal 4:1 combination of carbohydrate and protein that fuels and replenishes our muscles the best.^[27]^[28] Branched-chain amino acids are also recommended for exercise recovery.^{[citation needed]}

The above two factors can be compromised by psychological compulsions (eating disorders such as exercise bulimia, anorexia, and other bulimias), misinformation, a lack of organization, or a lack of motivation. These all lead to a decreased state of health.

Delayed onset muscle soreness can occur after any kind of exercise, particularly if the body is in an unconditioned state relative to that exercise.^[29]

Exercise and brain function

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Physical exercise

In the long term, exercise is beneficial to the brain by:

increasing the blood and oxygen flow to the brain
increasing growth factors that help create new nerve cells^[30] and promote synaptic plasticity^[31]
increasing chemicals in the brain that help cognition, such as dopamine, glutamate, norepinephrine, and serotonin^[32]

A 2008 review of cognitive enrichment therapies (strategies to slow or reverse cognitive decline) concluded that "physical activity, and aerobic exercise in particular, enhances older adults’ cognitive function".^[33]

Effect on the immune system

Although there have been hundreds of studies on exercise and the immune system, there is little direct evidence on its connection to illness. Epidemiological evidence suggests that moderate exercise appears to have a beneficial effect on the human immune system while extreme exercise appears to impair it, an effect which is modeled in a J curve. Moderate exercise has been associated with a 29% decreased incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI), but studies of marathon runners found that their prolonged high-intensity exercise was associated with an increased risk of an infection, although another study did not find the effect. Immune cell functions are impaired following acute sessions of prolonged, high-intensity exercise, and some studies have found that athletes are at a higher risk for infections. The immune systems of athletes anf nonathletes are generally similar. Athletes may have slightly elevated NK cell count and cytolytic action, but these are unlikely to be clinically significant.^[34]

Supplementation with the antioxidants vitamin C and E has been found to decrease the release of interleukin-6 (IL-6), which would be expected to decrease the depression of the immune system. Further, vitamin C supplementation has been associated with lower URTIs in marathon runners. However, the decreased release of IL-6 limits the anti-inflammatory effect of exercse and could limit the positive adaptation effects of exercise.^[34]

Biomarkers of inflammation such as C-reactive protein, which are associated with chronic diseases, are reduced in active individuals relative to sedentary individuals, and the positive effects of exercise may be due to its anti-inflammatory effects. The depression in the immune system following acute bouts of exercise may be one of the mechanisms for this anti-inflammatory effect.^[34]

Breathing

Active exhalation during physical exercise helps the body to increase its maximum lung capacity. This results in greater efficiency, since the heart has to do less work to oxygenate the muscles, and there is also increased muscular efficiency through greater blood flow. Consciously breathing deeply during aerobic exercise helps this development of the heart and lungs.^{[citation needed]}

History

The benefits of exercise have been known since antiquity. Marcus Cicero, around 65 BC, stated: “It is exercise alone that supports the spirits, and keeps the mind in vigor.”^[35]

See also

Health portal

Look up exercise in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Main article: Outline of exercise

Active Living
American Society of Exercise Physiologists
Army Physical Fitness Test (APFT)
Central governor
Exercise equipment
Exercise hypertension
Exercise induced nausea
Exercise intensity
Exercise intolerance
Exercise physiology
Exercise-induced anaphylaxis
Exercise-induced asthma
Exergaming
Green exercise
Health club
Kinesiology
Outdoor gym
physical fitness
Pilates
Sports training
List of basic exercise topics

References

^ Stampfer, M. J. (2000). "Primary Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease in Women through Diet and Lifestyle". New England Journal of Medicine 343: 16. doi:10.1056/NEJM200007063430103. edit
^ Hu., F., Manson, J., Stampfer, M., Graham, C., et al. (2001). Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. The New England Journal of Medicine, 345(11), 790-797. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from ProQuest database.
^ O'Connor, D., Crowe, M., Spinks, W. 2005. Effects of static stretching on leg power during cycling. Turin, 46(1), 52-56. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from ProQuest database.
^ Wilmore, J., Knuttgen, H. 2003. Aerobic Exercise and Endurance Improving Fitness for Health Benefits. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 31(5). 45. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from ProQuest database.
^ de Vos, N., Singh, N., Ross, D., Stavrinos, T., et al. 2005. Optimal Load for Increasing Muscle Power During Explosive Resistance Training in Older Adults. The Journals of Gerontology, 60A(5), 638-647. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from ProQuest database.
^ Cohen, S., & Williamson, G. M. (1991). Stress and infectious disease in humans. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 5–24
^ Jason Menoutis, Ed.D. (2008). "Physical Activity and Health." (Abstract). Nasm Pro. http://www.nasm.org/nasmpro/library/showarticle.aspx?id=14220#one. Retrieved on 2008-08-25.
^ Hanc, J. 1987. Your Health Behind the Runner\'s Euphoria. \'\'Newsday, April 21, 1987,\'\' 11. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from ProQuest database
^ van Praag H, Kempermann G, Gage FH. (1999). "Ontogeny Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus." (Abstract). Nature Neuroscience. 2 (3): 266–70. doi:10.1038/6368. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10195220. Retrieved on 2007-03-28.
^ Clément Grondard et al. (2005). "Regular Exercise Prolongs Survival in a Type 2 Spinal Muscular Atrophy Model Mouse." (Abstract). The Journal of Neuroscience. 25 (33): 7615–7622. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1245-05.2005. PMID 16107648.
^ West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources
^ Could Exercise Regenerate Alcohol-Damaged Neurons? - Levin 41 (23): 20 - Psychiatr News
^ Edward McAuley,* Arthur F. Kramer, and Stanley J. Colcombe (2004). "Cardiovascular fitness and neurocognitive function in older Adults: a brief review." (Full Article). BRAIN, BEHAVIOR, and IMMUNITY. 18 (2004): 214–220. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2003.12.007. http://www.kch.uiuc.edu/labs/exercise-psychology/Library/pubs/McAuley_Brain_Behavior_Immunity_2004.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-03-28.
^ Bouchard, Claude; Ping An, Treva Rice, James S. Skinner, Jack H. Wilmore, Jacques Gagnon, Louis Perusse, Arthus S. Leon, D. C. Rao (01 September 1999). "Familial aggregation of VO(2max) response to exercise training: results from the HERITAGE Family Study.". Journal of Applied Physiology 87 (3): 1003–1008. PMID 10484570. http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/87/3/1003?ijkey=189eebcbc5a461258da582b4aef41ebcf7bec51f&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha. Retrieved on 2007-07-17.
^ Kolata, Gina (February 12, 2002). "Why Some People Won't Be Fit Despite Exercise". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9406EEDE113CF931A25751C0A9649C8B63&sec=health. Retrieved on 2007-07-17.
^ Hubal, MJ; Gordish-Dressman H, Thompson PD, Price TB, Hoffman EP, Angelopoulos TJ, Gordon PM, Moyna NM, Pescatello LS, Visich PS, Zoeller RF, Seip RL, Clarkson PM (June 2005). "Variability in muscle size and strength gain after unilateral resistance training.". Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 37 (6): 964–972. PMID 15947721. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15947721&dopt=Citation. Retrieved on 2007-07-17.
^